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REFERENCES :- 1. A1-Khazini, Abd al-Rahmn, Mizan al-Hikmah, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 A.H. pp. 1170. 2. Al-Qifti, Ali Ibn Ysuf, Tarikh al-Hukama, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271. 3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, Vol. I, p. 632. 4. Ibid., p. 631. five. Ibid., 632. 6. Ibid., vol. II, Part II, p. 623. 7. Al-Qifti, op. cit., p. 277. 8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707. 9. Ibid., Vol. II, Part I, p. 24. 10. Balgirami, Ali, Tamaddun-e-Arab, (Urdu translation of a French work by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441. 11. Ibid., vol I, p. 609. 12. Ibid., p. 721. 13 Ismail Basha al-Baghdadi, Hadiyyah al-Arifin, Istanbul, 1951, Vol. II, p. 66. 14. Sarton, op.cit., p. 707. 15. Ibid., p. 709-713. 16. Ibid. vol. II, Part, II, p. 1009. 17. Ibid.,p. 1018. 18. Ibid., Vol III, element I p. 707. Al-Frisi, Kaml al-Din, Tnqih al-Manazir, Hyderabad Decean, India. 19. Sarton op. cit., Vol. II, Part II, p. 1039. 20. Briffault, Dr. Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980, p. 205.
Al-Biruni made reference to a undeniable form of wells that will be obtained by dull the earth to that level of water which is submitted to the hydrostatic pressure where case technique to the pressure water is driven upward as in the biological springs. He properly explains the action of such wells by the precept of communicating vessels. (8) The Muslims developed the platforms of bathing. They prepared the brand new, steam bath referred to as Hammm (from the Arabic root Hamm aspiring to heat). When the European Crusaders came to the East and experienced the comforts of those baths, they delivered them into their personal countries. The Muslims had been the 1st to keep on with the directive estate of the magnetic needle to the determination of the trail of their ride at the same time vacationing on sea. The Chinese had been the 1st to uncover this estate. The maritime business between the Muslims gave a a lot suitable deallots importance to the southern end of the needle than the northern one as or now no longer it's done in brand new instances. This was likely as a consequences of in some places like Syria and Asia Minor the southern end pointed extra or less closer to Makkah. Thus this end of the needle gave the entire path of the Qiblah. In the West the compass was first of all used by the Italian sailors. Some Muslims have referred to the compass in their writings. For instance, Bailak al-Qabajaqi in his book entitled Kanz al-Ahjr described utilizing a floating compass witnessed by him in l24243. (9) The Muslims had been also the 1st to invent weapons and cannons and use explosive drapery in them. The goal of this invention was to throw bullets at the enemy from a lengthy distance. The Chinese used sodium nitrate solely. But the penetrating electricity of explosives was realized and made use of solely by Muslims. The historians all the time write that first of all weapons had been used in the struggle of Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims or now no longer it's revealed that weapons had been used a longer term ago. In one in every of those writings there's a tale that some ruler named Yaqb besieged in 602 A.H. (1205 A.C.) an African the urban Mehdra which was beneath the leadership of his chief insurgent, and attacked the partitions with the lend a hand of sounding weapons and machines. From every non-public laptop there came out several showers of colossal stones and fireplace balls. The announcement given by Ibn Khaldn in his History of Berbers also proves utilizing the weapons at the time of struggle. He writes Abu Yusuf, the Sultan of Morocco besieged in 672 A.H. (1273 A.C.) the metropolis of Sijilmasa. He installed the gadgets for besiege in entrance of the metropolis. These gadgets consisted of Manjneeq, Urawe and Handam with which the bits of iron had been thrown. These bits had been filled in the box of Handam, and the explosives stored at the back of them had been set on fireplace. Its end consequence was extraordinary and its consequences is per risk referred to as an act of Allah. One day with the lend a hand of a stone thrown by Manjneeq, component of the wall fell, and from there the attack was made on the metropolis. (10) The Muslims developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haitham (Latin Alhazen) made a shiny contribution closer to this science. Indeed diversity one-edge optics started out with him. Before Ibn al-Haitham it was all the time thought by the Greek, Roman and Muslim scientists that rays are emitted from the eyes closer to the objects noticeable. Plato encouraged that there has been but some other set of rays which emitted from the item noticeable. Alexandrians believed that the vision lies in the lens of the attention. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni also believed that the ray went from the item to the attention. Aristotles strategies had been very on the threshold of to diversity one-edge believe. The atomists positioned forward an atomical idea. Hunain Ibn Ishq in his work entitled Questions on the attention positioned forward a idea which was solely a bit like that of Plato. In his opinion the lens was the central organ of vision. Both the visible drive coming from the brain and kind of like the item coming from without had been obtained in the lens. Al-Razi, too, in his monograph on the nature of vision showed that the eyes do now no longer radiate dwindled. (11) Ibn al-Haitham changed the normal view by asserting the idea that the objects are noticeable by rays passing from them closer to the attention and now no longer by the opposite system. Most of his successors did now no longer agree along with his view, but Al-Birni and Ibn Sina independently and in fact agreed with him. Ibn al-Haitham solved several optical, things on the thought of the mathematical capabilities of his day. Ibn al-Haitham taken care of the kind of medley of subject matters as the architecture of the attention, optical phantasm, perspective, binocular vision, vision of outlines, shadows and hues, the normal catoptrics and dioptrics with new trends, virtual camera obscura, Alhazens issues, mirages, comets, the Milky Way, rainbows, halos, and many others. Ibn al-Haitham carried out analysis catoptrics which incorporates the effort acknowledged Alhazens issues. It is as follows:- From two causes in the aircraft of a circle to attract traces assembly at some degree of the circumference and making equal angles with the everyday at that point. This leads, to an equation, of the fourth degree. Ibn al-Haitham solved it by the lend a hand of an hyperbola intersecting a circle. He also solved the so-referred to as al-Mahanis cubic equation. Ibn al-Haitham showed a marked progress in experimental platforms. He made analysis on round and parabolic mirrors; round aberration and dioptrics. He observed that the ratio between the angles of prevalence and mirrored image does now no longer continue to be mounted. He described the magnifying electricity of a lens and studied atmospheric refraction. He talked about that the twilight solely ceases or begins when the Sun is 19 underneath the horizon, and attempted to measure the peak of the atmosphere on that basis. He gave an lots less demanding description of the attention and vision. He attempted to give an explanation for, binocular vision, and gave an accurate explanation of the apparent enlarge in the dimensions of the solar and the moon on the threshold of the horizon. He gave the 1st mathematical remedy of the virtual camera obscura. Thus he deals with the problems which now come beneath now no longer less than seven matters in conjunction with anatomy, physiology, psychology, arithmetic, astronomy, physics and meteorology. The entire name of Ibn al-Haitham is Abu Ali Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra and was born in 354 A.H. (965 A.C.). He migrated to Egypt where he lived till his death. He was a noble person and a genius who had the capabilities of many sciences. He was the a lot realistic mathematician of his age and perhaps the a lot realistic opticians in history. He was also smartly versed in medication and Arabic language. When the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amrillah, who was very fond of philosophy, heard about Ibn al-Haitham, he had a reputable have to unavoidably still see him. Al-Hkim was cautioned that Ibn al-Haitham had disclosed that if he had been in Egypt, he can also prefer done something in connection with the river Nile, so as that it can also flip into rewarding in every case, even if the extent of water was high or low. According to Ibn al-Haitham, the river water fell from a high place lying in the territory of Egypt. Hearing this record Al-Hakim changed into extra fond of assembly Ibn al-Haitham .Al-Hkim despatched a reputable amount of cost to him, and persuaded him to come to his court docket. Ibn al-Haitham left for Egypt. When he reached on the threshold of Cairo al-Hakim went to take transport of him. They met in a village on the threshold of Bb al-Qahirah (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim honored him, him with all of the centers, and asked him to fulfill his promise in regards to the river Nile. A group of people was to lend a hand him in executing his plan. When Ibn al-Haitham made the survey of the net website online and came to a place referred to as Janadil (now referred to as Shall), which lies on the threshold of Aswan on an elevated surface, he realized the problems frightened. Finding himself unable to fulfill his promise, he changed into very ashamed, Now he feared al-Hkim and to positioned off him he acted as a mad guy, and remained in the circumstance of madness till the death of al-Hkim. Then he came to his senses and settled in Qubbah on the threshold of the gate of Jamiah al-Azhar, and engaged himself in writing books. He died in 1038. Ibn al-Haitham is the author of many works. He summarized Aristotles works, and wrote commentaries on them. He also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on arithmetic and physics are 15 and on metaphysics and physics are 44 in diversity. His books incorporate the sole on flowers and one on the properties of clean and Compound medicinal drugs. (12) His kitab al-Manazir (the optical glossary), is one in every of the diversity one classics which influenced scientific thought for extra than six centuries. The Latin, Muslim and Hebrew writers akin to Roger 1acon, John Peckham, Witelo, Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirzi, Levi Ben Gerson sincerely primarily based their works on this enormously terrific book. Ibn Sin made a deep analyse of dwindled. He observed that if dwindled is emitted technique to the ejection of some form of particles by the luminous source, the pace of dwindled should be finite. (13) Al-Biruni observed that the pace of dwindled is immensely greater than that of the sound. (14) Nasir al-Din al-Tusi wrote two books on Optics. One of them, is entitled Al-Mabahith fi Iniks al-Shuaat wa Initafiha (Research on the mirrored image and refraction of rays), contains an explanation of the equality of the angles of prevalence and mirrored image. The diversified is entitled Tahrir kitab al-Manzir. In the preface the author remarks that one choose objects technique to the dwindled rays emanating from them, but that the entire thing occurs as although the rays emanated from our eyes. (15) Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, (d. 1311) who was perhaps the a lot realistic scientist of all instances his views on Optics in his astronomical works. In one in every of such works, entitled Nihyat al-Idrk fi Diryat al-Aflak(Highest understanding of the capabilities of the Spheres); he discusses questions of geometrical optics, the nature of vision, and for certain the rainbow. He was the 1st to grant a ample account of the rainbow. His explanation of the rainbow is sincerely primarily based on his analyse of the passage of a ray of dwindled by utilizing a transparent sphere (drop of water). He realized that the rainbow is formed when the rays are refracted two times and mirrored once (or tunice in relation to the secondary rainbow) in the humid ambience. (16) Another, major physicist and mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abul- Hasan al-Farisi. He wrote a book entitled Tanqih al-Manazir (Correction of optics) which is an elaborate and precise commentary on Ibn al-Haithams Kitb al-Manzir (the book of optics). It covers now no longer purely actual and physiological optics, but also meteorology, perspective and lots of diversified matters. It comprises remarks on serial perspective, color consequences, and many others. Kamal al-Din encouraged the use, of hyperboloidal lenses so as to avert round aberration. He gave an account of the refraction of dwindled. According to George Sarton, this account implies the following proof; the pace of dwindled is finite but very enormously terrific; the pace of dwindled in selection media is inversely proportional to the optical density (now no longer the similar as the drapery density). The 2nd of those proof looks to be an adumbration of the wave idea of dwindled as closer to the corpuscular idea. Kaml al-Din carried out several experiments on virtual camera obscura and advanced its use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. He showed that the shots obtained on a divulge in a darkish room by means, of the rays of dwindled passing by utilizing a slender hollow, are unbiased of the form of the ho1e, and that the smaller the hollow, the sharper the shots. It was also proved that the shots of many objects are shaped individually on the divulge, but the shots and the directions had been reversed. With the lend a hand of the virtual camera he observed eclipses and the movements of the clouds and birds. (17) Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the lancer) Najm al- Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) wrote on navy matters. He flourished in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of struggle, (1) Kitab al-Furusiyah wal Munasab al-Harbiyah (Horsemanship and struggle stratagems), (2) Nihayat al-Suul wal Umniya fi Taallum al-Amal al-Furusiyah. The first treatise deals with the navy matters akin to the navy operation, activity of employing lances, bows, siege engines, and the manner of fighting at sea and the verbal exchange of fireside and many others. It contains extraordinarily many of pyrotechnic recipes; Al-Hasan viewed saltpeter the desired substance of pyrotechnics. He explained the platforms of having waiting and purifying it via potash and of repeated crystallizations. In the opinion of George Sarton, that might be extra major than it can also appear, for the impurities of saltpeter are hygroscopic, and thus characteristically characteristically tend to ruin its valued at. To uncover saltpeter and its makes use of was one thing, to purify it was but some other. (18) The Muslims advanced the art of shipbuilding, taught Mediterranean seamen to collect lighter sailing-ships or caravels (garaf), to caulk their boats with tar still acknowledged in Romance languages by the Arabic name of gatran (Fr goudron, It. caltrame)to produce protection to sails and cables (Ar. habl). (19)
Abstracts The diversity one-edge Physics is sincerely primarily based on the findings and considering of the americans of historical age. If no person knows the ground and work of the past on an issue, she or he might per risk a lot perhaps mere grow a new thought or findings. For, a civilization should know its past. Hence, the graceful work is a small effort to locate out the contribution of ancient Arabian and Egyptian scientists in the discipline of Physics and Technologyy. Different scientists of selection faculty of thought, correlating selection streams of science being Physics as a diversity one subject, are described in the graceful work. Key Words: Arabian and Egyptian Scientist, Physics, Technology
The Muslim scientists studied deeply the desired questions of physics. For instance Ibn Sina made a profound analyse of such phenomena as drive, motion, dwindled, heat, vacuum, and many others. A enormously terrific progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics. Useful work was done in the discipline of mechanics on the wheel, axle, lever, pulley, keen aircraft, windmill, water-wheel, toothed wheel, and many others. The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, named Kitab Mizan al-Hikmah (Book of the stableness of know-how) which is the a lot shiny medieval work on those matters. It presents a idea of the drive of the appeal of the earth (gravity), sincerely primarily based on which the common drive is directed closer to the centre of the universe, which was meant at that point to be the centre of the earth. It comprises the tables of actual gravity of many liquids and solids (sincerely primarily based on the work of al-Biruni), and a history of the subject; the gravity of air; observations on capillarity; utilizing aerometer for the measurement of densities and the appreciation of the temperature of liquids; the idea of lever; the application of stability to leveling and to the measurement of time. The analysis and extracts of this book have been revealed in Arabic and English. (1) In but some other book on stability al-Khazini stresses the are finding to get rid of, so a long way as achieveable, the influences of temperature edition for the period of weighing. When al-Khazinis diversified study are viewed, he looks to be a precursor of Galileo. Al-Khazinis entire name was Abul Fath Abd al-Rahman al-Mansur al-Khazini (or al-Khazin). He flourished about 11151121. He was a Greek (Rumi) slave. His seize Ali al-Khazin l-Marwazi arranged for his reputable scientific and philosophical periods in Marw. Al-Khzin Compiled the astronomical tables referred to as al-Zij al-Mutabar al-Sinjari (The esteemed Sinjaric Tables) that experience been named after Sinjar Ibn Malikshah Ibn Alp Arsaln, governor and later Sultan of Khurasn (109798 to 115758). They grant the situation of the celebrities for the 12 months 11151116. Before al-Khazini, Umar al-Khayyam did the a lot realistic work on the stableness. Ibn Sina and al-Razi contributed to the idea of the stableness. Ban Ms (the sons of Mus), who flourished for the period of the reign of the Caliph al-Mamun, wrote many mechanical works. An major work on the stableness referred to as Farastn or Qarastun is ascribed to them. Al-Rzi (d. 92324) made investigations on unfamiliar gravity by utilizing the hydrostatic stability. This stability was referred to as al-Mizan al-Tabii (the precise stability). (2) Muhammad Ibn Ali Ibn Rustam al-Khurasani was a smartly-knownshows constructor of clocks and, thus, he was referred to as al-Saati (the clock maker). Between 1146 and 1169, he prepared a clock located in the Bab Jairn. (all the time referred to as Bab al-Saah, the door of the clock). Al-Sati remained guilty of his clock till his death in 118485. (3) Another Muslim mechanician of the thirteenth century was Abul-Isa Ismil Ibn Razzz (the son of rice service issuer) Badial-Zamn al-Jazari. He was patronized from 577578 to 601602 A.H. 11811182 to 12051206 A.C.,by the Urtuqid rulers of Diyar Bakr, a district of al-Jazirah. He wrote a treatise on the capabilities of the geometrical mechanical contrivances entitled Kitab fi Marifat al-Hiyal al-Handsiyyah, which was committed to the Urtuqid Nasir al-Din Mahmd (dominated from 1200 to 1222). It deals mainly with hydraulic tools (elepsydras, fountains, and many others.). This major work is thrilling from the technical standpoint, and represents the major Arabic work on applied mechanics. It is divided into six areas. The first element which deals with the extraordinarily many of forms of the elepsydras indicating the 2 equal or temporal hours is the a lot extreme. Muslims divided the day into twenty-four equal hours. But they adopted but some other kind of branch. They divided the day and evening every into twelve hours of varying size sincerely primarily based on the season. Such kind of hours had been also used by the Christians in Europe e.g., Italy, till the middle of the 18th century. The book was translated into German, and commentaries on it had been also written. (4) Al-Stis son Ridwn repaired and advanced the clock, and likewise wrote a book to describe its constitution and use. This book is an hugely major source of the analyse of early Muslim clocks. Ridwan was a mechanician, doctor and poet, and had capabilities of literature and song. He carried out the flute. Originally he belonged to Khurasan. He was appointed as wazir by the Ayyubi prince al-Faiz Ibrahim and his brother al-Muazzam Is. Ridwan also wrote a supplement to Ibn Sins treatise on grapes, and a commentary on his Qann (Canon). (five) Qaisar Ibn Abul-Qasim, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 A.C.) made a celestial globe. He likely made improvements on the water-wheels or water-generators. Such advanced forms of water-wheels are still noticeable on the Orontes, and are some of the glories of Hama. He prepared those water-wheels (naura) for al-Muzzaffar al-Taqi al-Din Mahmud, the ruler of Hama from 1229 to 1244 A.C. (6) The thinker Abu Nasr al-Farabi refuted the lifestyles of a vacuum. He wrote a shiny essay on the pliability of the air. It is an precise piece of analysis. (7) The Muslim scientists took pastime in the determination of the unfamiliar gravity of extraordinarily many of provides. Sanad Ibn Ali, a scientist of the ninth century made investigations on unfamiliar gravity. Al-Biruni made up our minds the unfamiliar gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sin and al-Rzi also made analysis on this subject. Ibn Yunus (d. 1009 A.C.) applied the pendulum to the measurement of time. Al-Biruni devised a time non-public laptop sincerely primarily based on the Roman calendar. He prepared it for use in the mosque of Ghazna. But the Imam of the mosque rejected it announcing that it was sincerely primarily based on a non-Muslim work. At this Al-Biruni was very a a lot suitable deallots frustrated. He stated that the, determination of time is a purely secular matter. It is, thus, of little valued at if or now no longer it's sincerely primarily based on a Muslim calendar or a non-Muslim one. Only convenience have to unavoidably still be thought to be.
